Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the communicable diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, affecting nearly one-third of the world's population. However, because the pathogenesis of TB is still not fully understood and the development of anti-TB drug is slow, TB remains a global public health problem. In recent years, with the gradual discovery and confirmation of the immunomodulatory properties of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), more and more studies, including our team's research, have shown that MSCs seem to be closely related to the growth status of Mtb and the occurrence and development of TB, which is expected to bring new hope for the clinical treatment of TB. This article reviews the relationship between MSCs and the occurrence and development of TB and the potential application of MSCs in the treatment of TB.

Advances in cancer immunity have promoted a major breakthrough in the field of cancer therapy. This is mainly associated with the successful development of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) for multiple types of human tumors. Blockade with different ICIs, including programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) inhibitors, may activate the immune system of the host against malignant cells. However, only a subgroup of patients with cancer would benefit from immune checkpoint blockade. Some patients experience primary resistance to initial immunotherapy, and a majority eventually develop acquired resistance to ICIs. However, the mechanisms involved in the development of drug resistance to immune checkpoint blockade remain unclear. Recent studies supported that combination of ICIs and anti-angiogenic agents could be a promising therapeutic strategy for overcoming the low efficacy of ICIs. Moreover, through their direct anti-cancer effect by inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis, anti-angiogenic drugs reprogram the tumor milieu from an immunosuppressive to an immune permissive microenvironment. Activated immunity by immune checkpoint blockade also facilitates anti-angiogenesis by downregulating the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and alleviating hypoxia condition. Many clinical trials showed an improved anti-cancer efficacy and prolonged survival following the addition of anti-angiogenic agents to ICIs. This review summarizes the current understanding and clinical development of combination therapy with immune checkpoint blockade and anti-angiogenic strategy.