Two new Selaginella species (i.e. S. altheae Valdespino and S. squamulosa Valdespino) and a novel combination [i.e. S. philipsonii (Jermy & Rankin) Valdespino] from South America are proposed. Descriptions, illustrations (line drawings and scanning electron micrographs, SEM, images), discussion on taxonomic affinities and information on habitat, distribution and phenology, as well as on conservation status are provided for each. Selaginella altheae is morphologically similar to species with erect, fern-like habit placed in the "Selaginella flabellata (L.) Spring group" as defined by Hieronymus, while S. squamulosa is allied to a species assembly with centipede-like habit here informally termed the "Selaginella vernicosa Baker group;" whereas S. philipsonii with its moss-like habit may be associated with species in the "Selaginella jungermannioides (Gaudich.) Spring group" or those centered on S. ovifolia Baker. All taxa here proposed are classified in subg. Stachygynandrum.

Invasive species have become widespread in aquatic environments throughout the world, yet there are few studies that have examined genomic variation of multiple introduced species in newly colonized environments. In this study, we contrast genomic variation in two salmonid species (anadromous Chinook Salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 11,579 SNPs and resident Brook Charr Salvelinus fontinalis, 13,522 SNPs) with differing invasion success after introduction to new environments in South America relative to populations from their native range in North America. Estimates of genetic diversity were not significantly different between introduced and source populations for either species, indicative of propagule pressure that has been shown to maintain diversity in founding populations relative to their native range. Introduced populations also demonstrated higher connectivity and gene flow than those in their native range. Evidence for candidate loci under divergent selection was observed, but was limited to specific introduced populations and was not widely evident. Patterns of genomic variation were consistent with general dispersal potential of each species and therefore also the notion that life history variation may contribute to both invasion success and subsequent genetic structure of these two salmonids in Patagonia.

Human Adenoviruses are recognized pathogens, causing a broad spectrum of diseases. Serotype identification is critical for epidemiological surveillance, detection of new strains and understanding of HAdvs pathogenesis. Little data is available about HAdvs subtypes in Latin America.

No abstract available

Intestinal parasitic infections have been considered a relevant public health problem due to the increased incidence worldwide. In developing countries, diarrhea and gastrointestinal symptoms cause impaired work capacity in adults and delayed rate growth in children. Enteric infections of unknown etiology can often lead to misdiagnosis, increased transmission, and morbidity. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites in a young adult population and their pets. Stool samples from 139 university students and 44 companion animals were subjected to microscopy diagnosis using wet mounts, concentration by zinc sulphate flotation and staining techniques (Kinyoun and trichrome stain). Molecular diagnosis of protozoa was also performed by conventional PCR. The mean age was 24 years, 54% individuals were female, 46% were men, and 66% had at least one pet. The overall prevalence for at least one parasite was 74.8% and the rate of polyparasitism was 37.5%. Eighty-three patients (59.7%) were positive for Blastocystis spp., followed by Cryptosporidium spp. 24.5%, Endolimax nana 13.6%, Entamoeba dispar/E. moshkovskii 7.8% and Giardia intestinalis 1.4%. Molecular diagnosis substantially improved Cryptosporidium spp. and Blastocystis spp. detection and allowed to distinguish E. histolytica from commensals in the Entamoeba complex. Student's pets were also examined for parasitism. Samples from 27 dogs, 15 cats, one rabbit and one hen were analyzed, and parasites were detected in 30 (68.2%) as follows: Cryptosporidium spp. (24) Giardia spp. (4), hookworm (3), Endolimax nana (2) and Toxoplasma gondii (1). Overall, university students showed high prevalence of parasitism and polyparasitism suggesting exposure to parasite infected animals and contaminated environments. Cryptosporidium spp. was the predominant pathogen in human and domestic animals, and it was only detected by PCR, pointing out the need for sensitive tests in diagnosis and surveillance. Control strategies to prevent the effects of parasitic infections in young population should consider pets as reservoirs and transmission source.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) incidence is high in South America, where recent data on survival are sparse. We investigated the main predictors of HNSCC survival in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Colombia.

The western or desert red bat, Lasiurusfrantzii, is a cryptic insectivore species distributed in the Neotropics from Mexico south through Central America to Panama. L.frantzii was long considered a subspecies of the red bat, Lasiurusblossevillii, but recently it was elevated to full-species status based on genetic information. Here we present evidence of the presence of L.frantzii in the Andean Region of Colombia, confirming the species' presence in South America; the new record, from 3836 m a.s.l., is also the highest elevation known for the species. We suggest that L.frantzii might be widely distributed in trans-Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and perhaps Peru and Bolivia. However, a review and exploration of additional morphological traits to identify the species are necessary because of the uncertainty of the distribution of L.frantzii.

Studies on the peopling of South America have been limited by the paucity of sequence data from Native Americans, especially from the east part of the Amazon region. Here, we investigate the whole exome variation from 58 Native American individuals (eight different populations) from the Amazon region and draw insights into the peopling of South America. By using the sequence data generated here together with data from the public domain, we confirmed a strong genetic distinction between Andean and Amazonian populations. By testing distinct demographic models, our analysis supports a scenario of South America occupation that involves migrations along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. Occupation of the southeast part of South America would involve migrations from the north, rather than from the west of the continent.

The valley of the Magdalena River is one of the main population pathways in Colombia. The gene pool and spatial configuration of human groups in this territory have been outlined throughout three historical stages: the Native pre-Hispanic world, Spanish colonization, and XIX century migrations. This research was designed with the goal of characterizing the diversity and distribution pattern of Y-chromosome lineages that are currently present in the Tolima and Huila departments (middle Magdalena River region). Historic cartography was used to identify the main geographic sites where the paternal lineages belonging to this area have gathered. Twelve municipalities were chosen, and a survey that included genealogical information was administered. Samples collected from 83 male volunteers were analyzed for 48 Y-SNPs and 17 Y-STRs. The results showed a highly diverse region characterized by the presence of 16 sublineages within the major clades R, Q, J, G, T and E and revealed that 93% (n = 77) of haplotypes were different. Among these haplogroups, European-specific R1b-M269 lineages were the most representative (57.83%), with six different subhaplogroups and 43 unique haplotypes. Native American paternal ancestry was also detected based on the presence of the Q1a2-M3*(xM19, M194, M199) and Q1a2-M346*(xM3) lineages. Interestingly, all Q1a2-M346*(xM3) samples (n = 7, with five different haplotypes) carried allele six at the DYS391 locus. This allele has a worldwide frequency of 0.169% and was recently associated with a new Native subhaplogroup. An in-depth phylogenetic analysis of these samples suggests the Tolima and Huila region to be the principal area in all Central and South America where this particular Native lineage is found. This lineage has been present in the region for at least 1,809 (+/- 0,5345) years.

The incidence of thyroid cancer (TC) has increased substantially worldwide. However, there is a lack of knowledge about age-period-cohort (APC) effects on incidence rates in South American countries. This study describes the TC incidence trends and analyzes APC effects in Cali, Colombia; Costa Rica; Goiânia, Brazil; and Quito, Ecuador.

The global spread of specific clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a major public health problem, and understanding the dynamics of geographical spread requires worldwide surveillance. Over the past 20 years, the ST239 lineage of MRSA has been recognized as an emerging clone across the globe, with detailed studies focusing on isolates from Europe and Asia. Less is known about this lineage in South America, and, particularly, Brazil where it was the predominant lineage of MRSA in the early 1990s to 2000s. To gain a better understanding about the introduction and spread of ST239 MRSA in Brazil we undertook a comparative phylogenomic analysis of ST239 genomes, adding seven completed, closed Brazilian genomes. Brazilian ST239 isolates grouped in a subtree with those from South American, and Western, romance-language-speaking, European countries, here designated the South American clade. After an initial worldwide radiation in the 1960s and 1970s, we estimate that ST239 began to spread in South America and Brazil in approximately 1988. This clone demonstrates specific genomic changes that are suggestive of local divergence and adaptational change including agrC single-nucleotide polymorphisms variants, and a distinct pattern of virulence-associated genes (mainly the presence of the chp and the absence of sea and sasX). A survey of a geographically and chronologically diverse set of 100 Brazilian ST239 isolates identified this virulence genotype as the predominant pattern in Brazil, and uncovered an unexpectedly high prevalence of agr-dysfunction (30%). ST239 isolates from Brazil also appear to have undergone transposon (IS256) insertions in or near global regulatory genes (agr and mgr) that likely led to rapid reprogramming of bacterial traits. In general, the overall pattern observed in phylogenomic analyses of ST239 is of a rapid initial global radiation, with subsequent local spread and adaptation in multiple different geographic locations. Most ST239 isolates harbor the ardA gene, which we show here to have in vivo anti-restriction activity. We hypothesize that this gene may have improved the ability of this lineage to acquire multiple resistance genes and distinct virulence-associated genes in each local context. The allopatric divergence pattern of ST239 also may suggest strong selective pressures for specific traits in different geographical locations.

Pseudopimelodus is a Neotropical genus of bumblebee catfish, composed of four valid species occurring in both trans- and cis-Andean rivers of South America. The orogeny of the Andes has led to diversification in the genus Pseudopimelodus in Colombia. This study analyzed partial sequences of mitochondrial cox1 and nuclear rag2 genes to test the hypothesis that the species, nominally recognized as P. schultzi and P. bufonius in Colombia, correspond to more than two different evolutionary lineages. Results indicate high levels of genetic divergence among individuals of nominal P. schultzi and P. bufonius, from trans- and cis-Andean basins in Colombia. In addition, five divergent lineages of Pseudopimelodus were confidently delimited by using a single-locus species-discovery approach and confirmed by species tree analyses. Additionally, molecular-clock dating showed that most diversification processes in Pseudopimelodus took place during the Miocene, when Andean tectonic evolution was occurring in northwestern South America. The present study provides, for the first time, phylogeographic insight into this Neotropical genus.

Studies with integrative approaches (based on different lines of evidence) are fundamental for understanding the diversity of organisms. Different data sources can improve the understanding of the taxonomy and evolution of snakes. We used this integrative approach to verify the taxonomic status of Hydrodynastes gigas (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854), given its wide distribution throughout South America, including the validity of the recently described Hydrodynastes melanogigas Franco, Fernandes & Bentim, 2007.

Characidium is a Neotropical fish genus. Its distribution ranges from eastern Panama to northern Argentina, and it is an important component of the Neotropical ichthyofauna present in the major rivers of South America. We here provide an approximation to the dispersal and historical distributions of Characidium. The biogeographic history of five species of the genus was analyzed through nuclear RAG-2 and mitochondrial 16S genes and a time-calibrated phylogenetic analysis using three outgroup species. A biogeographical reconstruction was performed to estimate ancestral geographic ranges and infer the historical events that impacted the geographic distributions of Characidium species. Our results showed Characidium as a monophyletic group. The molecular clock suggests that the most recent common ancestor of Characidium originated during the Eocene, about 50.2 Mya. In addition, different dispersion and vicariance events could be inferred, which possibly gave rise to the present geographical distribution of the genus. Our results point to the rise of the Andean mountains and sea fluctuations as being important events in the formations and delimitation of different rivers, which influenced the distribution of South American ichthyofauna.

The upwelling hypothesis has been proposed to explain reduced or lack of population structure in seabird species specialized in food resources available at cold-water upwellings. However, population genetic structure may be challenging to detect in species with large population sizes, since variation in allele frequencies are more robust under genetic drift. High gene flow among populations, that can be constant or pulses of migration in a short period, may also decrease power of algorithms to detect genetic structure. Penguin species usually have large population sizes, high migratory ability but philopatric behavior, and recent investigations debate the existence of subtle population structure for some species not detected before. Previous study on Humboldt penguins found lack of population genetic structure for colonies of Punta San Juan and from South Chile. Here, we used mtDNA and nuclear markers (10 microsatellites and RAG1 intron) to evaluate population structure for 11 main breeding colonies of Humboldt penguins, covering the whole spatial distribution of this species. Although mtDNA failed to detect population structure, microsatellite loci and nuclear intron detected population structure along its latitudinal distribution. Microsatellite showed significant Rst values between most of pairwise locations (44 of 56 locations, Rst = 0.003 to 0.081) and 86% of individuals were assigned to their sampled colony, suggesting philopatry. STRUCTURE detected three main genetic clusters according to geographical locations: i) Peru; ii) North of Chile; and iii) Central-South of Chile. The Humboldt penguin shows signal population expansion after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), suggesting that the genetic structure of the species is a result of population dynamics and foraging colder water upwelling that favor gene flow and phylopatric rate. Our findings thus highlight that variable markers and wide sampling along the species distribution are crucial to better understand genetic population structure in animals with high dispersal ability.

We present the description of a new genus and species of soldierless termites from South America. Rustitermes boteroi Constantini, Castro & Scheffrahn, gen. et sp. nov. can be identified by the morphology of the enteric valve, with six slightly asymmetric cushions, each one forming a central pouch made of scales smaller than those between the cushions. The new genus features two characteristic rows of thick bristles on the interior margin of the fore tibia, and is supported by COI molecular sequence data. This species is distributed from Tobago to northern Argentina.

Much of the immense present day biological diversity of Neotropical rainforests originated from the Miocene onwards, a period of geological and ecological upheaval in South America. We assess the impact of the Andean orogeny, drainage of Lake Pebas and closure of the Panama isthmus on two clades of tropical trees (Cremastosperma, ca 31 spp.; and Mosannona, ca 14 spp.; both Annonaceae). Phylogenetic inference revealed similar patterns of geographically restricted clades and molecular dating showed diversifications in the different areas occurred in parallel, with timing consistent with Andean vicariance and Central American geodispersal. Ecological niche modelling approaches show phylogenetically conserved niche differentiation, particularly within Cremastosperma. Niche similarity and recent common ancestry of Amazon and Guianan Mosannona species contrast with dissimilar niches and more distant ancestry of Amazon, Venezuelan and Guianan species of Cremastosperma, suggesting that this element of the similar patterns of disjunct distributions in the two genera is instead a biogeographic parallelism, with differing origins. The results provide further independent evidence for the importance of the Andean orogeny, the drainage of Lake Pebas, and the formation of links between South and Central America in the evolutionary history of Neotropical lowland rainforest trees.

Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors of Leishmania that are acquired by the female sand fly during blood feeding on an infected mammal. Leishmania parasites develop exclusively in the gut lumen during their residence in the insect before transmission to a suitable host during the next blood feed. Female phlebotomine sand flies are blood feeding insects but their life style of visiting plants as well as animals, and the propensity for larvae to feed on detritus including animal faeces means that the insect host and parasite are exposed to a range of microorganisms. Thus, the sand fly microbiota may interact with the developing Leishmania population in the gut. The aim of the study was to investigate and identify the bacterial diversity associated with wild adult female Lutzomyia sand flies from different geographical locations in the New World. The bacterial phylotypes recovered from 16S rRNA gene clone libraries obtained from wild caught adult female Lutzomyia sand flies were estimated from direct band sequencing after denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of bacterial 16 rRNA gene fragments. These results confirm that the Lutzomyia sand flies contain a limited array of bacterial phylotypes across several divisions. Several potential plant-related bacterial sequences were detected including Erwinia sp. and putative Ralstonia sp. from two sand fly species sampled from 3 geographically separated regions in Brazil. Identification of putative human pathogens also demonstrated the potential for sand flies to act as vectors of bacterial pathogens of medical importance in addition to their role in Leishmania transmission.

The genus Clinanthus Herb. is found in the Andes Region (South America), mainly in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. These plants belong to the Amaryllidaceae family, specifically the Amaryllidoideae subfamily, which presents an exclusive group of alkaloids known as Amaryllidaceae alkaloids that show important structural diversity and pharmacological properties. It is possible to find some publications in the literature regarding the botanical aspects of Clinanthus species, although there is little information available about their chemical and biological activities. The aim of this work was to obtain the alkaloid profile and the anti-cholinesterase activity of four different samples of Clinanthus collected in South America: Clinanthus sp., Clinanthus incarnatus, and Clinanthus variegatus. The alkaloid extract of each sample was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and their potential against the enzymes acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase were evaluated. Thirteen alkaloids have been identified among these species, while six unidentified structures have also been detected in these plants. The alkaloid extract of the C. variegatus samples showed the highest structural diversity as well as the best activity against AChE, which was likely due to the presence of the alkaloid sanguinine. The results suggest this genus as a possible interesting new source of Amaryllidaceae alkaloids, which could contribute to the development of new medicines.

Ranaviruses (family Iridoviridae) cause important diseases in cold-blooded vertebrates. In addition, some occurrences indicate that, in this genus, the same virus can infect animals from different taxonomic groups. A strain isolated from a Ranavirus outbreak (2012) in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, had its genome sequenced and presented 99.26% and 36.85% identity with samples of Frog virus 3 (FV3) and Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) ranaviruses, respectively. Eight potential recombination events among the analyzed sample and reference FV3 samples were identified, including a recombination with Bohle iridovirus (BIV) sample from Oceania. The analyzed sample presented several rearrangements compared to FV3 reference samples from North America and European continent. We report for the first time the complete genome of Ranavirus FV3 isolated from South America, these results contribute to a greater knowledge related to evolutionary events of potentially lethal infectious agent for cold-blooded animals.