The toll/interleukin 1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP) plays an important role in the toll-like receptor (TLR) 2, TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9 signaling pathways. TIRAP anchors to phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) on the plasma membrane and PI (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) on the endosomal membrane and assists in recruitment of the myeloid differentiation primary response 88 protein to activated TLRs. To date, the structure and mechanism of TIRAP's membrane association are only partially understood. Here, we modeled an all-residue TIRAP dimer using homology modeling, threading, and protein-protein docking strategies. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that PIP2 creates a stable microdomain in a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine bilayer, providing TIRAP with its physiologically relevant orientation. Computed binding free energy values suggest that the affinity of PI-binding domain (PBD) for PIP2 is stronger than that of TIRAP as a whole for PIP2 and that the short PI-binding motif (PBM) contributes to the affinity between PBD and PIP2. Four PIP2 molecules can be accommodated by distinct lysine-rich surfaces on the dimeric PBM. Along with the known PI-binding residues (K15, K16, K31, and K32), additional positively charged residues (K34, K35, and R36) showed strong affinity toward PIP2. Lysine-to-alanine mutations at the PI-binding residues abolished TIRAP's affinity for PIP2; however, K34, K35, and R36 consistently interacted with PIP2 headgroups through hydrogen bond (H-bond) and electrostatic interactions. TIRAP exhibited a PIP2-analogous intermolecular contact and binding affinity toward PIP3, aided by an H-bond network involving K34, K35, and R36. The present study extends our understanding of TIRAP's membrane association, which could be helpful in designing peptide decoys to block TLR2-, TLR4-, TLR7-, and TLR9-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a unique category of pattern recognition receptors that recognize distinct pathogenic components, often utilizing the same set of downstream adaptors. Specific molecular features of extracellular, transmembrane (TM), and cytoplasmic domains of TLRs are crucial for coordinating the complex, innate immune signaling pathway. Here, we constructed a full-length structural model of TLR4-a widely studied member of the interleukin-1 receptor/TLR superfamily-using homology modeling, protein-protein docking, and molecular dynamics simulations to understand the differential domain organization of TLR4 in a membrane-aqueous environment. Results showed that each functional domain of the membrane-bound TLR4 displayed several structural transitions that are biophysically essential for plasma membrane integration. Specifically, the extracellular and cytoplasmic domains were partially immersed in the upper and lower leaflets of the membrane bilayer. Meanwhile, TM domains tilted considerably to overcome the hydrophobic mismatch with the bilayer core. Our analysis indicates an alternate dimerization or a potential oligomerization interface of TLR4-TM. Moreover, the helical properties of an isolated TM dimer partly agree with that of the full-length receptor. Furthermore, membrane-absorbed or solvent-exposed surfaces of the toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain are consistent with previous X-ray crystallography and biochemical studies. Collectively, we provided a complete structural model of membrane-bound TLR4 that strengthens our current understanding of the complex mechanism of receptor activation and adaptor recruitment in the innate immune signaling pathway.