Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)/CCL2 plays an important role in the initiation and progression of cancer. We previously reported that in 4T1 murine breast cancer, non-tumor stromal cells, including macrophages, were the major source of MCP-1. In the present study, we analyzed the potential mechanisms by which MCP-1 is upregulated in macrophages infiltrating 4T1 tumors. We found that cell-free culture supernatants of 4T1 cells (4T1-sup) markedly upregulated MCP-1 production by peritoneal inflammatory macrophages. 4T1-sup also upregulated other MCPs, such as MCP-3/CCL7 and MCP-5/CCL12, but modestly upregulated neutrophil chemotactic chemokines, such as KC/CXCL1 or MIP-2/CXCL2. Physicochemical analysis indicated that an approximately 20-30 kDa 4T1 cell product was responsible for the capacity of 4T1-sup to upregulate MCP-1 expression by macrophages. A neutralizing antibody against granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), but not macrophage CSF, almost completely abrogated MCP-1-inducing activity of 4T1-sup, and recombinant GM-CSF potently upregulated MCP-1 production by macrophages. The expression levels of GM-CSF in 4T1 tumors in vivo were higher than other tumors, such as Lewis lung carcinoma. Treatment of mice with anti-GM-CSF antibody significantly reduced the growth of 4T1 tumors at the injection sites but did not reduce MCP-1 production or lung metastasis in tumor-bearing mice. These results indicate that 4T1 cells have the capacity to directly upregulate MCP-1 production by macrophages by releasing GM-CSF; however, other mechanisms are also involved in increased MCP-1 levels in the 4T1 tumor microenvironment.

Chronic low-grade inflammation in visceral adipose tissues triggers the development of obesity-related insulin resistance, leading to the metabolic syndrome, a serious health condition with higher risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and stroke. In the present study, we investigated whether Sprouty-related EVH1-domain-containing protein 2 (Spred2), a negative regulator of the Ras/Raf/ERK/MAPK pathway, plays a role in the development of high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity, adipose tissue inflammation, metabolic abnormalities, and insulin resistance. Spred2 knockout (KO) mice, fed with HFD, exhibited an augmented body weight gain, which was associated with enhanced adipocyte hypertrophy in mesenteric white adipose tissue (mWAT) and deteriorated dyslipidemia, compared with wild-type (WT) controls. The number of infiltrating macrophages with a M1 phenotype, and the crown-like structures, composed of macrophages surrounding dead or dying adipocytes, were more abundant in Spred2 KO-mWAT compared to in WT-mWAT. Exacerbated adipose tissue inflammation in Spred2 KO mice led to aggravated insulin resistance and fatty liver disease. To analyze the mechanism(s) that caused adipose tissue inflammation, cytokine response in mWAT was investigated. Stromal vascular fraction that contained macrophages from Spred2 KO-mWAT showed elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) compared with those from WT-mWAT. Upon stimulation with palmitate acid (PA), bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) derived from Spred2 KO mice secreted higher levels of TNFα and MCP-1 than those from WT mice with enhanced ERK activation. U0126, a MEK inhibitor, reduced the PA-induced cytokine response. Taken together, these results suggested that Spred2, in macrophages, negatively regulates high fat diet-induced obesity, adipose tissue inflammation, metabolic abnormalities, and insulin resistance by inhibiting the ERK/MAPK pathway. Thus, Spred2 represents a potential therapeutic tool for the prevention of insulin resistance and resultant metabolic syndrome.