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The role of conscious intention in relation to motoric movements has become a major topic of investigation in neuroscience. Traditionally, reports of conscious intention have been compared to various features of the readiness-potential (RP)--an electrophysiological signal that appears before voluntary movements. Experiments, however, tend to study intentions in immediate relation to movements (proximal intentions), thus ignoring other aspects of intentions such as planning or deciding in advance of movement (distal intentions). The current study examines the difference in electrophysiological activity between proximal intention and distal intention, using electroencephalography (EEG). Participants had to form an intention to move and then wait 2.5 sec before performing the actual movement. In this way, the electrophysiological activity related to forming a conscious intention was separated from any confounding activity related to automated motor activity. This was compared to conditions in which participants had to act as soon as they had the intention and a condition where participants acted upon an external cue 2.5 sec prior to movement. We examined the RP for the three conditions. No difference was found in early RP, but late RP differed significantly depending on the type of intention. In addition, we analysed signals during a longer time-interval starting before the time of distal intention formation until after the actual movement concluded. Results showed a slow negative electrophysiological "intention potential" above the mid-frontal areas at the time participants formed a distal intention. This potential was only found when the distal intention was self-paced and not when the intention was formed in response to an external cue.
The ability to decode an individual's intentions in real time has long been a 'holy grail' of research on human volition. For example, a reliable method could be used to improve scientific study of voluntary action by allowing external probe stimuli to be delivered at different moments during development of intention and action. Several Brain Computer Interface applications have used motor imagery of repetitive actions to achieve this goal. These systems are relatively successful, but only if the intention is sustained over a period of several seconds; much longer than the timescales identified in psychophysiological studies for normal preparation for voluntary action. We have used a combination of sensorimotor rhythms and motor imagery training to decode intentions in a single-trial cued-response paradigm similar to those used in human and non-human primate motor control research. Decoding accuracy of over 0.83 was achieved with twelve participants. With this approach, we could decode intentions to move the left or right hand at sub-second timescales, both for instructed choices instructed by an external stimulus and for free choices generated intentionally by the participant. The implications for volition are considered.
The harm caused by tobacco use is primarily attributable to cigarette smoking. Switching completely to non-combustible products may reduce disease risks in adult cigarette smokers who are unable or unwilling to quit. Before a new tobacco product can enter the market or can be marketed as a modified risk tobacco product, the manufacturer must determine the impact that the product will have on the likelihood of changes in tobacco use behavior among both tobacco users and nonusers. One way to estimate change in tobacco use behavior is to assess tobacco users' and nonusers' behavioral intentions toward the product and its marketing, including intentions to try, use, dual use, and switch to the product from cigarettes. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate behavioral intention metrics appropriate for use with current, former, and never adult tobacco users.
Although numerous studies have explored the factors influencing entrepreneurial activity, there is a lack of a theoretical basis for linking these factors to entrepreneurship behavioral intention. The current study uses the theory of self-regulating attitude to construct a theoretical model of examining the relationship among cognitive bias, entrepreneurial emotion, and entrepreneurship intention. A total of 312 valid samples were collected from college students at a Chinese university. The bootstrapping method was used to test the multi-mediation hypotheses. Our research found that positive entrepreneurial emotion plays a mediating role in the relationship between optimism and entrepreneurship intention, whereas negative entrepreneurial emotion plays a mediating role in the relationship between overconfidence and entrepreneurship intention. These findings underline the importance of a correct understanding of cognitive bias and entrepreneurial emotion in the process of entrepreneurship.
Generic drugs were instituted in 1984 in the United States. Since that time, many studies have been conducted in several countries into consumer attitude and behavior when purchasing generic drugs. Understanding the factors that can influence attitude and purchasing intention in this segment has been a challenge. Thus, this paper aims to present a mapping of the literature on the attitude toward and intention to purchase generic drugs and capture insights that can help define and improve promotional strategies for the use of these products. To identify articles related to the theme, we selected the Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus, Lilacs, Pubmed Central, Springer, and Embase databases time limited to June 2020, using the keywords "generic drug", "purchase intention", and "attitude". The results indicate that this topic is relatively new, with publications in the leading journals in the area demonstrating its importance. Analysis revealed five strategic insights and showed that the research theme could be grouped into three clusters: (i) consumer attitude and behavior, (ii) perspective of patients and health professionals, and (iii) assessment of the risks associated with generic medications to determine which factors can influence purchase intention, providing decision makers with a broader view with regard to directing public policy strategies in healthcare.
Decision making often requires making arbitrary choices ("picking") between alternatives that make no difference to the agent, that are equally desirable, or when the potential reward is unknown. Using event-related potentials we tested the effect of age on this common type of decision making. We compared two age groups: ages 18-25, and ages 41-67 on a masked-priming paradigm while recording EEG and EMG. Participants pressed a right or left button following either an instructive arrow cue or a neutral free-choice picking cue, both preceded by a masked arrow or neutral prime. The prime affected the behavior on the Instructed and the Free-choice picking conditions both in the younger and older groups. Moreover, electrophysiological "Change of Intention" (ChoI) was observed via lateralized readiness potential (LRP) in both age groups - the polarity of the LRP indicated first preparation to move the primed hand and then preparation to move the other hand. However, the older participants were more conservative in responding to the instructive cue, exhibiting a speed-accuracy trade-off, with slower response times, less errors in incongruent trials, and reduced probability of EMG activity in the non-responding hand. Additionally, "Change of Intention" was observed in both age groups in slow RT trials with a neutral prime as a result of an endogenous early intention to respond in a direction opposite the eventual instructing arrow cue. We conclude that the basic behavioral and electrophysiological signatures of implicit ChoI are common to a wide range of ages. However, older subjects, despite showing a similar dynamic decision trajectory as younger adults, are slower, more prudent and finalize the decision making process before letting the information affect the peripheral motor system. In contrast, the flow of information in younger subjects occurs in parallel to the decision process.
The gait pattern of exoskeleton control conflicting with the human operator's (the pilot) intention may cause awkward maneuvering or even injury. Therefore, it has been the focus of many studies to help decide the proper gait operation. However, the timing for the recognization plays a crucial role in the operation. The delayed detection of the pilot's intent can be equally undesirable to the exoskeleton operation. Instead of recognizing the motion, this study examines the possibility of identifying the transition between gaits to achieve in-time detection. This study used the data from IMU sensors for future mobile applications. Furthermore, we tested using two machine learning networks: a linearfFeedforward neural network and a long short-term memory network. The gait data are from five subjects for training and testing. The study results show that: 1. The network can successfully separate the transition period from the motion periods. 2. The detection of gait change from walking to sitting can be as fast as 0.17 s, which is adequate for future control applications. However, detecting the transition from standing to walking can take as long as 1.2 s. 3. This study also find that the network trained for one person can also detect movement changes for different persons without deteriorating the performance.
The foundation of modern neuroscience and psychology about intention for action was laid by B. Libet et al. [(1983) Brain 106, 623-642]. They reported the time of awareness of wanting to move to be about 0.2 s before voluntary movement onset. However, despite repeated confirmation of the result, their method has been criticised for its dependence on self-reported timing and subjective memory, and the interpretation has been widely debated without general consensus. Here, we show that the mean time of the conscious intention to move was 1.42 s before movement, estimated based on the subject's real-time decision of whether or not there was a thought to move when a tone occurred. This event is after the onset of the bereitschaftspotential, an electroencephalographic activity preceding voluntary movement, but about 1 s earlier than the timing of intention reported previously based on the subject's recall. Our result solves some problems of the conventional method, thus giving a clearer answer to the controversies. The difference between the conventional result and our result suggests that the perception of intention rises through multiple levels of awareness, starting just after the brain initiates movement.
Using low-frequency time-domain electroencephalographic (EEG) signals we show, for the same type of upper limb movement, that goal-directed movements have different neural correlates than movements without a particular goal. In a reach-and-touch task, we explored the differences in the movement-related cortical potentials (MRCPs) between goal-directed and non-goal-directed movements. We evaluated if the detection of movement intention was influenced by the goal-directedness of the movement. In a single-trial classification procedure we found that classification accuracies are enhanced if there is a goal-directed movement in mind. Furthermore, by using the classifier patterns and estimating the corresponding brain sources, we show the importance of motor areas and the additional involvement of the posterior parietal lobule in the discrimination between goal-directed movements and non-goal-directed movements. We discuss next the potential contribution of our results on goal-directed movements to a more reliable brain-computer interface (BCI) control that facilitates recovery in spinal-cord injured or stroke end-users.
The ability to understand intentions based on another's movements is crucial for human interaction. This ability has been ascribed to the so-called motor chaining mechanism: anytime a motor chain is activated (e.g., grasp-to-drink), the observer attributes to the agent the corresponding intention (i.e., to drink) from the first motor act (i.e., the grasp). However, the mechanisms by which a specific chain is selected in the observer remain poorly understood. In the current study, we investigate the possibility that in the absence of discriminative contextual cues, slight kinematic variations in the observed grasp inform mapping to the most probable chain. Chaining of motor acts predicts that, in a sequential grasping task (e.g., grasp-to-drink), electromyographic (EMG) components that are required for the final act [e.g., the mouth-opening mylohyoid (MH) muscle] show anticipatory activation. To test this prediction, we used MH EMG, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS; MH motor-evoked potentials), and predictive models of movement kinematics to measure the level and timing of MH activation during the execution (Experiment 1) and the observation (Experiment 2) of reach-to-grasp actions. We found that MH-related corticobulbar excitability during grasping observation varied as a function of the goal (to drink or to pour) and the kinematics of the observed grasp. These results show that subtle changes in movement kinematics drive the selection of the most probable motor chain, allowing the observer to link an observed act to the agent's intention.
Observers with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) find it difficult to read intentions from movements. However, the computational bases of these difficulties are unknown. Do these difficulties reflect an intention readout deficit, or are they more likely rooted in kinematic (dis-)similarities between typical and ASD kinematics? We combined motion tracking, psychophysics, and computational analyses to uncover single-trial intention readout computations in typically developing (TD) children (n = 35) and children with ASD (n = 35) who observed actions performed by TD children and children with ASD. Average intention discrimination performance was above chance for TD observers but not for ASD observers. However, single-trial analysis showed that both TD and ASD observers read single-trial variations in movement kinematics. TD readers were better able to identify intention-informative kinematic features during observation of TD actions; conversely, ASD readers were better able to identify intention-informative features during observation of ASD actions. Crucially, while TD observers were generally able to extract the intention information encoded in movement kinematics, those with autism were unable to do so. These results extend existing conceptions of mind reading in ASD by suggesting that intention reading difficulties reflect both an interaction failure, rooted in kinematic dissimilarity between TD and ASD kinematics (at the level of feature identification), and an individual readout deficit (at the level of information extraction), accompanied by an overall reduced sensitivity of intention readout to single-trial variations in movement kinematics.
The ability to infer other people's intentions is crucial for successful human social interactions. Such inference relies on an adaptive interplay of sensory evidence and prior expectations. Crucially, this interplay would also depend on the type of intention inferred, i.e., on how abstract the intention is. However, what neural mechanisms adjust the interplay of prior and sensory evidence to the abstractness of the intention remains conjecture. We addressed this question in two separate fMRI experiments, which exploited action scenes depicting different types of intentions (Superordinate vs. Basic; Social vs. Non-social), and manipulated both prior and sensory evidence. We found that participants increasingly relied on priors as sensory evidence became scarcer. Activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) reflected this interplay between the two sources of information. Moreover, the more abstract the intention to infer (Superordinate > Basic, Social > Non-Social), the greater the modulation of backward connectivity between the mPFC and the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), resulting in an increased influence of priors over the intention inference. These results suggest a critical role for the fronto-parietal network in adjusting the relative weight of prior and sensory evidence during hierarchical intention inference.
We often form intentions but have to postpone them until the appropriate situation for retrieval and execution has come, an ability also referred to as event-based prospective memory. After intention completion, our cognitive system has to deactivate no-more-relevant intention representations from memory to avoid interference with subsequent tasks. In everyday life, we frequently rely on these abilities also in stressful situations. Surprisingly, little is known about potential stress effects on these functions. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the reliability of event-based prospective memory and of intention deactivation in conditions of acute psychosocial stress. To this aim, eighty-two participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test, a standardized stress protocol, or a standardized control situation. Following this treatment, participants performed a computerized event-based prospective memory task with non-salient and focal prospective memory cues in order to assess prospective memory performance and deactivation of completed intentions. Although the stress group showed elevated levels of salivary cortisol as marker of a stress-related increase in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity throughout the cognitive testing period compared to the no-stress group, prospective memory performance and deactivation of completed intentions did not differ between groups. Findings indicate that cognitive control processes subserving intention retrieval and deactivation after completion may be mostly preserved even under conditions of acute stress.
Many previous studies on brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) have focused on electroencephalography (EEG) signals elicited during motor-command execution to generate device commands. However, exploiting pre-execution brain activity related to movement intention could improve the practical applicability of BMIs. Therefore, in this study we investigated whether EEG signals occurring before movement execution could be used to classify movement intention. Six subjects performed reaching tasks that required them to move a cursor to one of four targets distributed horizontally and vertically from the center. Using independent components of EEG acquired during a premovement phase, two-class classifications were performed for left vs. right trials and top vs. bottom trials using a support vector machine. Instructions were presented visually (test) and aurally (condition). In the test condition, accuracy for a single window was about 75%, and it increased to 85% in classification using two windows. In the control condition, accuracy for a single window was about 73%, and it increased to 80% in classification using two windows. Classification results showed that a combination of two windows from different time intervals during the premovement phase improved classification performance in the both conditions compared to a single window classification. By categorizing the independent components according to spatial pattern, we found that information depending on the modality can improve classification performance. We confirmed that EEG signals occurring during movement preparation can be used to control a BMI.
With the rapid growth of urban economy and population in China, the output of municipal solid waste (MSW) has dramatically increased becoming a constant threat to residents' living environment and health. The classification intention of residents plays a pivotal role in solving the problem of MSW disposal. While numerous studies have examined the classification behavior of MSW from the perspective of ordinary residents and households, few studies have attempted to understand young people's sorting intention. The novelty of this research is to explore the determinants that affect young people's intention toward municipal solid waste sorting (MSWS) by extending the predictive factors of environmental concern and personal moral obligation into the theory of planned behavior (TPB). A sample of 524 young respondents from Hebei Province in China were used to conduct a structural equation model (SEM) validation. The empirical results revealed that, according to the rankings of significance, personal moral obligation, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm had positive influences on young people's intention toward MSWS, while attitude and environmental concern did not. Furthermore, the multi-group comparison showed that, compared with the male and rural group, the intention of female and urban respondents to classify MSW was not affected by subjective norms. Some targeted managerial implications were ultimately proposed to promote young people's intention toward MSWS. This study contributes to the existing knowledge system of MSWS by revealing the classification intention of young people as a group. The findings and implications provide the government with useful insights for encouraging young people to actively participate in MSWS.
Unintended pregnancy contributes to a high burden of maternal and fetal morbidity in the United States, and pregnancy intention screening offers a key strategy to improve preconception health and reproductive health equity. The One Key Question© is a pregnancy intention screening tool that asks a single question, "Would you like to become pregnant in the next year?" to all reproductive-age women. This study explored the perspectives of community health workers on using One Key Question in community-based settings.
AI-based chatbots are an emerging technology disrupting the tourism industry. Although chatbots have received increasing attention, there is little evidence of their impact on tourists' decisions to visit a destination. This study evaluates the key attributes of chatbots and their effects on user satisfaction and visit intention. We use structural equation modeling with covariance procedures to test the proposed model and its hypotheses. The results showed that informativeness, empathy, and interactivity are critical attributes for satisfaction, which drive tourists' intention to visit a destination.
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