The demand for natural coloring and preservative agents in food industry is increasing day by day as a result of awareness of the negative health effects of synthetic color preservatives. Consumers want foods with less processing, a longer shelf life, and clear labels that list only natural ingredients and food additives with familiar names that promote good health. In order to meet consumer demands and regain consumers' confidence in the safety of food products, the food industry was compelled to search for natural alternatives with strong antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Therefore, the objective of this study was to produce a microbial pigment that not only serve as food coloring agents but also provide health advantages owing to their bioactivities. Additionally, the potential use of anthraquinone pigment (AQP) as a natural food preservative compared to gamma irradiation was also examined to extend the shelf life of the beef burger and improve its hygienic quality.

Red beetroot (RB) is a well-known health-promoting food consumed worldwide. RB is commonly used in food processing and manufacturing thanks to the high content of components that can also be employed as natural coloring agents. These bioactive molecules vary their concentration depending on beetroot seasonality, harvest time and climate conditions. The first objective of this study was to evaluate the variation of the RB phytochemical profile related to the root development during three different harvest times, using an 1H-NMR-based metabolomic approach. Changes of carbohydrates and secondary metabolite concentrations were observed from July to September. Secondly, we compared the metabolic profiles of the final processed beet juices in three different production years to observe the effect of climate conditions on the RB's final product metabotype. A PCA analysis performed on juice extracts showed that production years 2016 and 2017 were characterized by a high content of choline and betaine, while 2018 by a high content of amino acids and dopamine and a low content of inorganic nitrates. This study suggests that the harvest time and roots growth conditions could be used to modulate the RB phytochemical profile, according to the final requirements of use, food or coloring agent source.

Hair coloring products are one of the most important cosmetics for modern people; there are three major types of hair dyes, including the temporary, semi-permanent and permanent hair dyes. The selected hair dyes (such as ammonium persulfate, sodium persulfate, resorcinol and lawsone) are the important components for hair coloring products. Therefore, we analyzed the effects of these compounds on melanogenesis in B16-F10 melanoma cells. The results proved that hair dyes resorcinol and lawsone can reduce the production of melanin. The results also confirmed that resorcinol and lawsone inhibit mushroom and cellular tyrosinase activities in vitro. Resorcinol and lawsone can also downregulate the protein levels of tyrosinase and microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) in B16-F10 cells. Thus, we suggest that frequent use of hair dyes may have the risk of reducing natural melanin production in hair follicles. Moreover, resorcinol and lawsone may also be used as hypopigmenting agents to food, agricultural and cosmetic industry in the future.

Nanoparticles, i.e., particles with a diameter of ≤100 nm regardless of their composing material, are added to various foods as moisturizers, coloring agents, and preservatives. Silicon dioxide (SiO2, silica) nanoparticles in particular are widely used as food additives. However, the influence of SiO2 nanoparticle oral consumption on intestinal homeostasis remains unclear. The daily intake of 10-nm-sized SiO2 nanoparticles exacerbates dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, whereas the daily intake of 30-nm-sized SiO2 nanoparticles has no influence on intestinal inflammation. The exacerbation of colitis induced by consuming 10-nm-sized SiO2 nanoparticles was abolished in mice deficient in apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC). Our study indicates that the oral intake of small SiO2 nanoparticles poses a risk for worsening intestinal inflammation through activation of the ASC inflammasome.

Curing produces a characteristic pink color during meat processing through the production of nitrosyl myoglobin (NOMb), which requires nitric oxide (NO). Nitrites and nitrates in coloring agents are crucial NO sources; however, a reducing agent is necessary to facilitate their chemical conversion to NO. This study aimed to investigate the effect of the reducing properties of whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) on the reddening of cured meat products. Cured and cooked sausage models were treated with WPH, which enhanced the reddening of the meat color and increased the a* value in the models compared with that of the controls. Additionally, ethanol-extracted WPH induced Fe3⁺ reduction, lowered oxidation-reduction potential, and decreased nitrite (NO2-) levels. Moreover, ethanol-extracted WPH promoted the formation of NOMb in myoglobin solution. This effect was also observed when ethanol-extracted WPH treated with maleimide was used, implying that certain peptides rather than the thiol group of WPH are involved in promoting NOMb formation. Furthermore, the peptides that decreased NO2- levels were isolated from ethanol-extracted WPH, identified, and synthesized. These synthesized peptides, particularly the FFVAPFPEVFGK peptide, showed NO2--reducing activity. Hence, WPH may promote the coloration of cured meat products through the reducing potential of the peptides contained within.

In this study, a biomembrane surface fermentation was used to produce red pigments of Penicillium novae-zelandiae, and the significant improvement in pigment production by the addition of 0.4 g/L of tyrosine demonstrated that the red pigments probably contained betalain. Therefore, one red pigment was purified, and identified as 2-decarboxybetanin by high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS analysis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the differentially expressed genes and metabolic profile of P. novae-zelandiae in response to different cultivations and exhibited the complete biosynthetic pathway of 2-decarboxybetanin in P. novae-zelandiae. Betalains are important water-soluble nitrogen-containing food coloring agents, obtained mainly from beetroot by chemical extraction. This paper is the first report about the production of betalain by microbial fermentation, and results exhibit the possible use of fungal fermentation in future 2-decarboxybetanin production.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is known as the most expensive spice. C. sativus dried red stigmas, called threads, are used for culinary, cosmetic, and medicinal purposes. The rest of the flower is often discarded, but is now being used in teas, as coloring agents, and fodder. Previous studies have attributed antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-depressant, and anticancer properties to C. sativus floral bio-residues. The aim of this study is to assess C. sativus flower water extract (CFWE) for its effects on hemoglobin, brush boarder membrane (BBM) functionality, morphology, intestinal gene expression, and cecal microbiome in vivo (Gallus gallus), a clinically validated model. For this, Gallus gallus eggs were divided into six treatment groups (non-injected, 18 Ω H2O, 1% CFWE, 2% CFWE, 5% CFWE, and 10% CFWE) with n~10 for each group. On day 17 of incubation, 1 mL of the extracts/control were administered in the amnion of the eggs. The amniotic fluid along with the administered extracts are orally consumed by the developing embryo over the course of the next few days. On day 21, the hatchlings were euthanized, the blood, duodenum, and cecum were harvested for assessment. The results showed a significant dose-dependent decrease in hemoglobin concentration, villus surface area, goblet cell number, and diameter. Furthermore, we observed a significant increase in Paneth cell number and Mucin 2 (MUC2) gene expression proportional to the increase in CFWE concentration. Additionally, the cecum microbiome analysis revealed C. sativus flower water extract altered the bacterial populations. There was a significant dose-dependent reduction in Lactobacillus and Clostridium sp., suggesting an antibacterial effect of the extract on the gut in the given model. These results suggest that the dietary consumption of C. sativus flower may have negative effects on BBM functionality, morphology, mineral absorption, microbial populations, and iron status.

Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) is widely present in China, Japan, and Korea. Its green pine leaves have traditionally been used as a food as well as a coloring agent. After being shed, pine leaves change their color from green to brown within two years, and although the brown pine leaves are abundantly available, their value has not been closely assessed. In this study, we investigated the potential anti-photoaging properties of brown pine leaves for skin. Brown pine leaf extract (BPLE) inhibited UVB-induced matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression to a greater extent than pine leaf extract (PLE) in human keratinocytes and a human skin equivalent model. HPLC analysis revealed that the quantity of trans-communic acid (TCA) and dehydroabietic acid (DAA) significantly increases when the pine leaf color changes from green to brown. BPLE and TCA elicited reductions in UVB-induced MMP-1 mRNA expression and activator protein-1 (AP-1) transactivation by reducing DNA binding activity of phospho-c-Jun, c-fos and Fra-1. BPLE and TCA also inhibited UVB-induced Akt phosphorylation, but not mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK), known regulators of AP-1 transactivation. We additionally found that BPLE and TCA inhibited phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), the upstream kinase of Akt, in vitro. In summary, both BPLE and its active component TCA exhibit protective effects against UVB-induced skin aging. Taken together, these findings underline the potential for BPLE and TCA to be utilized as anti-wrinkling agents and cosmetic ingredients, as they suppress UVB-induced MMP-1 expression.

Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can convert insoluble rhizosphere phosphorus into forms that are absorbable by plants and thus enhance the growth of plants. Safflower is a cash crop that is a source of vegetable oils, food coloring and flavoring agents. This study sought to isolate PSB in safflower rhizosphere soil and investigate their effects on seedling growth. The isolated PSB were identified as belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Sinorhizobium, Staphylococcus, Acinetobacter and Enterobacter using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Acinetobacter sp RC04. showed the best performance in phosphate solubilization, with the efficiency of the process being influenced by carbon source, nitrogen source, cultivation temperature and initial culture pH. Acinetobacter sp. RC04 and Sinorhizobium sp. RC02 showed the ability to improve safflower seed germination and, when co-inoculated, improved seedling growth. Hence, we suggest that Acinetobacter sp. RC04 and Sinorhizobium sp. RC02 could be developed for field application to promote safflower growth. The results from this study will help drive novel biofertilizer discovery and could be included in integrated nutrient management regimes for safflower and other important economic crops.

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles are widely used in cosmetics, sunscreens, biomedicine, and food products. When used as a food additive, TiO₂ nanoparticles are used in significant amounts as white food-coloring agents. However, the effects of TiO₂ nanoparticles on the gastrointestinal tract remain unclear. The present study was designed to determine the effects of five TiO₂ particles of different crystal structures and sizes in human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells and THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages. Twenty-four-hour exposure to anatase (primary particle size: 50 and 100 nm) and rutile (50 nm) TiO₂ particles reduced cellular viability in a dose-dependent manner in THP-1 macrophages, but in not Caco-2 cells. However, 72-h exposure of Caco-2 cells to anatase (50 nm) TiO₂ particles reduced cellular viability in a dose-dependent manner. The highest dose (50 µg/mL) of anatase (100 nm), rutile (50 nm), and P25 TiO₂ particles also reduced cellular viability in Caco-2 cells. The production of reactive oxygen species tended to increase in both types of cells, irrespective of the type of TiO₂ particle. Exposure of THP-1 macrophages to 50 µg/mL of anatase (50 nm) TiO₂ particles increased interleukin (IL)-1β expression level, and exposure of Caco-2 cells to 50 µg/mL of anatase (50 nm) TiO₂ particles also increased IL-8 expression. The results indicated that anatase TiO₂ nanoparticles induced inflammatory responses compared with other TiO₂ particles. Further studies are required to determine the in vivo relevance of these findings to avoid the hazards of ingested particles.

Nitrogen in different chemical forms is critical for metabolic alterations in Monascus strains and associated pigment diversity. In this study, we observed that ammonium-form nitrogen was superior in promoting the biosynthesis of Monascus pigments (MPs) when compared with nitrate and organic forms. Moreover, with any nitrogen source, the production of yellow and orange pigments was highly synchronized but distantly related to red pigments. However, transcriptional analyses of MP gene clusters suggested a low contribution to MP accumulation, suggesting that MP-limiting factors were located outside the gene cluster. Our metabolomic analyses demonstrated that red pigment biosynthesis was closely related to intracellular amino acids, whereas orange and yellow pigments were associated with nucleotides. In addition, weighted gene coexpression network analyses (WGCNA) based on transcriptomic data showed that multiple primary metabolic pathways were closely related to red pigment production, while several secondary pathways were related to orange pigments, and others were involved with yellow pigment regulation. These findings demonstrate that pigment diversity in Monascus is under combined regulation at metabolomic and transcriptomic levels. IMPORTANCE Natural MPs containing a mixture of red, orange, and yellow pigments are widely used as food coloring agents. MP diversity provides foods with versatile colors and health benefits but, in turn, complicate efforts to achieve maximum yield or desirable combination of pigments during the manufacturing process. Apart from the MP biosynthetic gene cluster, interactions between the main biosynthetic pathways and other intracellular genes/metabolites are critical to our understanding of MP differentiation. The integrative multiomics analytical strategy provides a technical platform and new perspectives for the identification of metabolic shunting mechanisms in MP biosynthesis. Equally, our research highlights the influence of intracellular metabolic alterations on MP differentiation, which will facilitate the rational engineering and optimization of MP production in the future.

Curcumin, a widely utilized flavor and coloring agent in food, has been shown to demonstrate powerful antioxidant, antitumor promoting and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. In the present work, synthesis of new heterocyclic derivatives based on Curcumin was studied. Compound 3 was synthesized via the reaction of furochromone carbaldehyde (1) with Curcumin (2) using pipredine as catalyst. Also, novel, 4,9-dimethoxy-5H-furo [3, 2-g] chromen-5-one derivatives 4a⁻d, 6a⁻d, 7, 8a⁻d, 9 and 10 were synthesized by the reactions of furochromone carbaldehyde (1) with different reagents (namely: appropriate amine 3a⁻d, appropriate hydrazine 5a⁻d, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, urea/thiourea, malononitrile, malononitrile with hydrazine hydrate). The structure of the synthesized products had been confirmed from their spectroscopic data (IR, ¹H-NMR, 13C-NMR and mass spectra). In the present investigation, the newly synthesized products were screened using the MTT colorimetric assay for their in vitro inhibition capacity in two human cancer cell lines (hepatocellular carcinoma (HEPG2) and breast cancer (MCF-7) as well as the normal cell line (human normal melanocyte, HFB4) in comparison to the known anticancer drugs: 5-flurouracil and doxorubicin. The anticancer activity results indicated that the synthesized products 4c and 8b showed growth inhibition activity against HEPG2 cell line and synthesized products 4b and 8a showed growth inhibition activity against MCF-7, but with varying intensities in comparison to the known anticancer drugs, 5-flurouracil and doxorubicin. Cyclin dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), a major cell cycle protein, was identified as a potential molecular target of Curcumin. Furthermore, Curcumin induced G1 cell cycle arrest, which is regulated by CDK2 in cancer cells. Therefore, we used molecular modelling to study in silico the possible inhibitory effect of CDK2 by Curcumin derivatives as a possible mechanism of these compounds as anticancer agents. The molecular docking study revealed that compounds 4b, 8a and 8b were the most effective compounds in inhibiting CDk2, and, this result was in agreement with cytotoxicity assay.