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The beating of motile cilia generates fluid flow over epithelia in brain ventricles, airways, and Fallopian tubes. Here, we patch clamp single motile cilia of mammalian ependymal cells and examine their potential function as a calcium signaling compartment. Resting motile cilia calcium concentration ([Ca2+] ~170 nM) is only slightly elevated over cytoplasmic [Ca2+] (~100 nM) at steady state. Ca2+ changes that arise in the cytoplasm rapidly equilibrate in motile cilia. We measured CaV1 voltage-gated calcium channels in ependymal cells, but these channels are not specifically enriched in motile cilia. Membrane depolarization increases ciliary [Ca2+], but only marginally alters cilia beating and cilia-driven fluid velocity within short (~1 min) time frames. We conclude that beating of ependymal motile cilia is not tightly regulated by voltage-gated calcium channels, unlike that of well-studied motile cilia and flagella in protists, such as Paramecia and Chlamydomonas.
A primary cilium is a solitary, slender, non-motile protuberance of structured microtubules (9+0) enclosed by plasma membrane. Housing components of the cell division apparatus between cell divisions, primary cilia also serve as specialized compartments for calcium signalling and hedgehog signalling pathways. Specialized sensory cilia such as retinal photoreceptors and olfactory cilia use diverse ion channels. An ion current has been measured from primary cilia of kidney cells, but the responsible genes have not been identified. The polycystin proteins (PC and PKD), identified in linkage studies of polycystic kidney disease, are candidate channels divided into two structural classes: 11-transmembrane proteins (PKD1, PKD1L1 and PKD1L2) remarkable for a large extracellular amino terminus of putative cell adhesion domains and a G-protein-coupled receptor proteolytic site, and the 6-transmembrane channel proteins (PKD2, PKD2L1 and PKD2L2; TRPPs). Evidence indicates that the PKD1 proteins associate with the PKD2 proteins via coiled-coil domains. Here we use a transgenic mouse in which only cilia express a fluorophore and use it to record directly from primary cilia, and demonstrate that PKD1L1 and PKD2L1 form ion channels at high densities in several cell types. In conjunction with an accompanying manuscript, we show that the PKD1L1-PKD2L1 heteromeric channel establishes the cilia as a unique calcium compartment within cells that modulates established hedgehog pathways.
Transformation of a contact between axon and dendrite into a synapse is accompanied by accumulation of the synaptic machinery at this site, being delivered in intracellular organelles mainly of TGN origin. Here, we report that in cultured hippocampal neurons, TGN organelles are linked via spectrin to clusters of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) in the plasma membrane. These complexes are translocated along neurites and trapped at sites of initial neurite-to-neurite contacts within several minutes after initial contact formation. The accumulation of TGN organelles at contacts with NCAM-deficient neurons is reduced when compared with wild-type cells, suggesting that NCAM mediates the anchoring of intracellular organelles in nascent synapses.
Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are microtubule-based organelles whose relatively simple shape makes them ideal for investigating the fundamental question of organelle size regulation. Most of the flagellar materials are transported from the cell body via an active transport process called intraflagellar transport (IFT). The rate of IFT entry into flagella, known as IFT injection, has been shown to negatively correlate with flagellar length. However, it remains unknown how the cell measures the length of its flagella and controls IFT injection. One of the most-discussed theoretical models for length sensing to control IFT is the ion-current model, which posits that there is a uniform distribution of Ca2+ channels along the flagellum and that the Ca2+ current from the flagellum into the cell body increases linearly with flagellar length. In this model, the cell uses the Ca2+ current to negatively regulate IFT injection. The recent discovery that IFT entry into flagella is regulated by the phosphorylation of kinesin through a calcium-dependent protein kinase has provided further impetus for the ion-current model. To test this model, we measured and manipulated the levels of Ca2+ inside of Chlamydomonas flagella and quantified IFT injection. Although the concentration of Ca2+ inside of flagella was weakly correlated with the length of flagella, we found that IFT injection was reduced in calcium-deficient flagella, rather than increased as the model predicted, and that variation in IFT injection was uncorrelated with the occurrence of flagellar Ca2+ spikes. Thus, Ca2+ does not appear to function as a negative regulator of IFT injection, hence it cannot form the basis of a stable length control system.
The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) has been reported to stimulate neuritogenesis either via nonreceptor tyrosine kinases or fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor. Here we show that lipid raft association of NCAM is crucial for activation of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase pathway and induction of neurite outgrowth. Transfection of hippocampal neurons of NCAM-deficient mice revealed that of the three major NCAM isoforms only NCAM140 can act as a homophilic receptor that induces neurite outgrowth. Disruption of NCAM140 raft association either by mutation of NCAM140 palmitoylation sites or by lipid raft destruction attenuates activation of the tyrosine focal adhesion kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, completely blocking neurite outgrowth. Likewise, NCAM-triggered neurite outgrowth is also completely blocked by a specific FGF receptor inhibitor, indicating that cosignaling via raft-associated kinases and FGF receptor is essential for neuritogenesis.
Primary cilia are solitary, non-motile extensions of the centriole found on nearly all nucleated eukaryotic cells between cell divisions. Only ∼200-300 nm in diameter and a few micrometres long, they are separated from the cytoplasm by the ciliary neck and basal body. Often called sensory cilia, they are thought to receive chemical and mechanical stimuli and initiate specific cellular signal transduction pathways. When activated by a ligand, hedgehog pathway proteins, such as GLI2 and smoothened (SMO), translocate from the cell into the cilium. Mutations in primary ciliary proteins are associated with severe developmental defects. The ionic conditions, permeability of the primary cilia membrane, and effectiveness of the diffusion barriers between the cilia and cell body are unknown. Here we show that cilia are a unique calcium compartment regulated by a heteromeric TRP channel, PKD1L1-PKD2L1, in mice and humans. In contrast to the hypothesis that polycystin (PKD) channels initiate changes in ciliary calcium that are conducted into the cytoplasm, we show that changes in ciliary calcium concentration occur without substantially altering global cytoplasmic calcium. PKD1L1-PKD2L1 acts as a ciliary calcium channel controlling ciliary calcium concentration and thereby modifying SMO-activated GLI2 translocation and GLI1 expression.
Detection and adaptation to cold temperature is crucial to survival. Cold sensing in the innocuous range of cold (>10-15 °C) in the mammalian peripheral nervous system is thought to rely primarily on transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels, most notably the menthol receptor, TRPM8. Here we report that TRP cation channel, subfamily C member 5 (TRPC5), but not TRPC1/TRPC5 heteromeric channels, are highly cold sensitive in the temperature range 37-25 °C. We found that TRPC5 is present in mouse and human sensory neurons of dorsal root ganglia, a substantial number of peripheral nerves including intraepithelial endings, and in the dorsal lamina of the spinal cord that receives sensory input from the skin, consistent with a potential TRPC5 function as an innocuous cold transducer in nociceptive and thermosensory nerve endings. Although deletion of TRPC5 in 129S1/SvImJ mice resulted in no temperature-sensitive behavioral changes, TRPM8 and/or other menthol-sensitive channels appear to underpin a much larger component of noxious cold sensing after TRPC5 deletion and a shift in mechanosensitive C-fiber subtypes. These findings demonstrate that highly cold-sensitive TRPC5 channels are a molecular component for detection and regional adaptation to cold temperatures in the peripheral nervous system that is distinct from noxious cold sensing.
Mutations in the polycystin proteins, PC-1 and PC-2, result in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and ultimately renal failure. PC-1 and PC-2 enrich on primary cilia, where they are thought to form a heteromeric ion channel complex. However, a functional understanding of the putative PC-1/PC-2 polycystin complex is lacking due to technical hurdles in reliably measuring its activity. Here we successfully reconstitute the PC-1/PC-2 complex in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells and show that it functions as an outwardly rectifying channel. Using both reconstituted and ciliary polycystin channels, we further show that a soluble fragment generated from the N-terminal extracellular domain of PC-1 functions as an intrinsic agonist that is necessary and sufficient for channel activation. We thus propose that autoproteolytic cleavage of the N-terminus of PC-1, a hotspot for ADPKD mutations, produces a soluble ligand in vivo. These findings establish a mechanistic framework for understanding the role of PC-1/PC-2 heteromers in ADPKD and suggest new therapeutic strategies that would expand upon the limited symptomatic treatments currently available for this progressive, terminal disease.
Cell division is essential to expand, shape, and replenish epithelia. In the adult small intestine, cells from a common progenitor intermix with other lineages, whereas cell progeny in many other epithelia form contiguous patches. The mechanisms that generate these distinct patterns of progeny are poorly understood. Using light sheet and confocal imaging of intestinal organoids, we show that lineages intersperse during cytokinesis, when elongated interphase cells insert between apically displaced daughters. Reducing the cellular aspect ratio to minimize the height difference between interphase and mitotic cells disrupts interspersion, producing contiguous patches. Cellular aspect ratio is similarly a key parameter for division-coupled interspersion in the early mouse embryo, suggesting that this physical mechanism for patterning progeny may pertain to many mammalian epithelia. Our results reveal that the process of cytokinesis in elongated mammalian epithelia allows lineages to intermix and that cellular aspect ratio is a critical modulator of the progeny pattern.
Cellular stresses trigger autophagy to remove damaged macromolecules and organelles. Lysosomes 'host' multiple stress-sensing mechanisms that trigger the coordinated biogenesis of autophagosomes and lysosomes. For example, transcription factor (TF)EB, which regulates autophagy and lysosome biogenesis, is activated following the inhibition of mTOR, a lysosome-localized nutrient sensor. Here we show that reactive oxygen species (ROS) activate TFEB via a lysosomal Ca(2+)-dependent mechanism independent of mTOR. Exogenous oxidants or increasing mitochondrial ROS levels directly and specifically activate lysosomal TRPML1 channels, inducing lysosomal Ca(2+) release. This activation triggers calcineurin-dependent TFEB-nuclear translocation, autophagy induction and lysosome biogenesis. When TRPML1 is genetically inactivated or pharmacologically inhibited, clearance of damaged mitochondria and removal of excess ROS are blocked. Furthermore, TRPML1's ROS sensitivity is specifically required for lysosome adaptation to mitochondrial damage. Hence, TRPML1 is a ROS sensor localized on the lysosomal membrane that orchestrates an autophagy-dependent negative-feedback programme to mitigate oxidative stress in the cell.
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