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In autism, heterogeneity is the rule rather than the exception. One obvious source of heterogeneity is biological sex. Since autism was first recognized, males with autism have disproportionately skewed research. Females with autism have thus been relatively overlooked, and have generally been assumed to have the same underlying neurobiology as males with autism. Growing evidence, however, suggests that this is an oversimplification that risks obscuring the biological base of autism. This study seeks to answer two questions about how autism is modulated by biological sex at the level of the brain: (i) is the neuroanatomy of autism different in males and females? and (ii) does the neuroanatomy of autism fit predictions from the 'extreme male brain' theory of autism, in males and/or in females? Neuroanatomical features derived from voxel-based morphometry were compared in a sample of equal-sized high-functioning male and female adults with and without autism (n = 120, n = 30/group). The first question was investigated using a 2 × 2 factorial design, and by spatial overlap analyses of the neuroanatomy of autism in males and females. The second question was tested through spatial overlap analyses of specific patterns predicted by the extreme male brain theory. We found that the neuroanatomy of autism differed between adult males and females, evidenced by minimal spatial overlap (not different from that occurred under random condition) in both grey and white matter, and substantially large white matter regions showing significant sex × diagnosis interactions in the 2 × 2 factorial design. These suggest that autism manifests differently by biological sex. Furthermore, atypical brain areas in females with autism substantially and non-randomly (P < 0.001) overlapped with areas that were sexually dimorphic in neurotypical controls, in both grey and white matter, suggesting neural 'masculinization'. This was not seen in males with autism. How differences in neuroanatomy relate to the similarities in cognition between males and females with autism remains to be understood. Future research should stratify by biological sex to reduce heterogeneity and to provide greater insight into the neurobiology of autism.
Pubmed ID: 23935125 RIS Download
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The Wellcome Trust is the largest charity in the UK. We fund innovative biomedical research, in the UK and internationally, spending over 600 million each year to support the brightest scientists with the best ideas. The Wellcome Trust is an independent charity funding research to improve human and animal health. Established in 1936 and with an endowment of around 13 billion, it is the UK's largest non-governmental source of funds for biomedical research. What we do We spend over 600 million every year both in the UK and internationally achieving our mission. Funding We support many different kinds of research and activities with the ultimate aim of protecting and improving human and animal health. This support is not restricted to UK researchers - we devote significant funding to international research too. Biomedical science Our biomedical science funding enables the investigation of health and disease in humans and animals. This includes funding for scientists, clinicians and veterinarians at different career stages. Technology transfer Our technology transfer funding supports the development of innovative, early-stage projects with potential medical applications. Medical humanities Our medical humanities funding supports research into biomedical ethics and the history of medicine. Public engagement Our public engagement funding promotes interest, excitement and debate around science and society. Capital funding Our capital funding is for large-scale construction or refurbishment projects in the UK that support science, public engagement, medical history, or the activities of learned societies. Strategic awards Our Strategic Awards provide flexible funding that adds value to excellent research groups. Managing a grant This area contains information and resources to help you manage a grant once it has been awarded, from the grant-start certificate to the end-of-grant report and beyond. Education Resources Teaching and education Resources to help promote contemporary science in the curriculum and to enable young people to engage with biomedical science. Tree of Life Darwin200 Big Picture Science Learning Centres Scientific animations Creative Encounters Courses and conferences Trust-run conferences, courses and workshops for scientists, historians, ethicists, social scientists, teachers, healthcare professionals and policymakers, held in the UK and overseas. Advanced Courses Scientific conferences Conference centres Retreats History of medicine Biomedical ethics Biomedical resources Tools, databases and information to support different areas of biomedical research, including genomics, post-genomics and developmental biology. Animal research Genomics Model organisms Microorganisms Post-genomics Tissues Researcher support Support and advice for all kinds of engagement activities to help you communicate your work in the most effective and rewarding way possible. About researcher support National opportunities Regional opportunities Highlights Publications Browse a wealth of publications covering all aspects of the work we fund. Wellcome Trust websites Explore a range of sites covering key biomedical topics and our public engagement activities.
View all literature mentionsAutism Speaks has grown into the nation''s largest autism science and advocacy organization, dedicated to funding research into the causes, prevention, treatments and a cure for autism; increasing awareness of autism spectrum disorders; and advocating for the needs of individuals with autism and their families. We are proud of what we''ve been able to accomplish and look forward to continued successes in the years ahead. In addition to putting money into new and cutting edge research, we also fund resources and programs such as the Autism Speaks Autism Treatment Network, Autism Speaks������?? Autism Genetic Resource Exchange and several other scientific and clinical programs. Autism Speaks was founded in February 2005 by Bob and Suzanne Wright, grandparents of a child with autism. Their longtime friend Bernie Marcus donated $25 million to help financially launch the organization. At Autism Speaks, our goal is to change the future for all who struggle with autism spectrum disorders. We are dedicated to funding global biomedical research into the causes, prevention, treatments, and cure for autism; to raising public awareness about autism and its effects on individuals, families, and society; and to bringing hope to all who deal with the hardships of this disorder. We are committed to raising the funds necessary to support these goals. Autism Speaks aims to bring the autism community together as one strong voice to urge the government and private sector to listen to our concerns and take action to address this urgent global health crisis. It is our firm belief that, working together, we will find the missing pieces of the puzzle.
View all literature mentionsIt is now widely known that animals share many genes with humans and can suffer from the same diseases, for example diabetes or deafness. Investigating these diseases in animals can provide vital leads to understanding both their causes and ways to treat them in humans. This approach to medical research lies at the heart of work at the MRC Mammalian Genetics Unit (MGU) at Harwell in Oxfordshire. In 1995 the MRC Radiobiology Unit was reconstituted to form two new units, the Radiation and Genome Stability Unit and the MGU. These opened in January 1996, together with the UK Mouse Genome Centre which is now part of MGU, making MRC Harwell a unique campus for multi-disciplinary genetics research. Since MGU's Director Steve Brown took the reins in 1996, the unit has dramatically expanded its scientific scope and increased its personnel from 40 to over 100. It now has 13 research programs encompassing molecular genetics, genomics, genetic manipulation and data analysis at all levels, from single genes to the whole genome. With a combination of cutting-edge facilities and expertise unrivaled in Europe, MGU Harwell has become firmly established as one of the world's leading academic centres for mouse genetics.
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